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Sport of riding waves

This article is about stand-up ocean surfing.

For other uses, see Surfing (disambiguation)

"Surfer" redirects here.

For other uses, see ❤️ Surfer (disambiguation)

Surfing is a surface water sport in which an individual, a surfer (or two in tandem surfing), uses a ❤️ board to ride on the forward section, or face, of a moving wave of water, which usually carries the surfer ❤️ towards the shore.

Waves suitable for surfing are primarily found on ocean shores, but can also be found in standing waves ❤️ in the open ocean, in lakes, in rivers in the form of a tidal bore, or in wave pools.

The term ❤️ surfing refers to a person riding a wave using a board, regardless of the stance.

There are several types of boards.

The ❤️ Moche of Peru would often surf on reed craft, while the native peoples of the Pacific surfed waves on alaia, ❤️ paipo, and other such water craft.

Ancient cultures often surfed on their belly and knees, while the modern-day definition of surfing ❤️ most often refers to a surfer riding a wave standing on a surfboard; this is also referred to as stand-up ❤️ surfing.

Another prominent form of surfing is body boarding, where a surfer rides the wave on a bodyboard, either lying on ❤️ their belly, drop knee (one foot and one knee on the board), or sometimes even standing up on a body ❤️ board.

Other types of surfing include knee boarding, surf matting (riding inflatable mats) and using foils.

Body surfing, in which the wave ❤️ is caught and ridden using the surfer's own body rather than a board, is very common and is considered by ❤️ some surfers to be the purest form of surfing.

The closest form of body surfing using a board is a handboard ❤️ which normally has one strap over it to fit on one hand.

Three major subdivisions within stand-up surfing are stand-up paddling, ❤️ long boarding and short boarding with several major differences including the board design and length, the riding style and the ❤️ kind of wave that is ridden.

In tow-in surfing (most often, but not exclusively, associated with big wave surfing), a motorized ❤️ water vehicle such as a personal watercraft, tows the surfer into the wave front, helping the surfer match a large ❤️ wave's speed, which is generally a higher speed than a self-propelled surfer can produce.

Surfing-related sports such as paddle boarding and ❤️ sea kayaking that are self-propelled by hand paddles do not require waves, and other derivative sports such as kite surfing ❤️ and windsurfing rely primarily on wind for power, yet all of these platforms may also be used to ride waves.

Recently ❤️ with the use of V-drive boats,[clarification needed] Wakesurfing, in which one surfs on the wake of a boat, has emerged.

[citation ❤️ needed] As of 2023, the Guinness Book of World Records recognized a 26.

2 m (86 ft) wave ride by Sebastian ❤️ Steudtner at Nazaré, Portugal as the largest wave ever surfed.[1]

During the winter season in the northern hemisphere, the North Shore ❤️ of Oahu, the third-largest island of Hawaii, is known for having some of the best waves in the world.

Surfers from ❤️ around the world flock to breaks like Backdoor, Waimea Bay, and Pipeline.

However, there are still many popular surf spots around ❤️ the world: Teahupo'o, located off the coast of Tahiti; Mavericks, California, United States; Cloudbreak, Tavarua Island, Fiji; Superbank, Gold Coast, ❤️ Australia.[2]

In 2016 surfing was added by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) as an Olympic sport to begin at the 2020 ❤️ Summer Olympics in Japan.

[3] The first gold medalists of the Tokyo 2020 surfing men and women's competitions were, respectively, the ❤️ Brazilian Ítalo Ferreira and the American from Hawaii, Carissa Moore.[4][5]

Origins and history [ edit ]Peru [ edit ]

About three to ❤️ five thousand years ago, cultures in ancient Peru fished in kayak-like watercraft (mochica) made of reeds that the fishermen surfed ❤️ back to shore.

[6][7] The Moche culture used the caballito de totora (little horse of totora), with archaeological evidence showing its ❤️ use around 200 CE.

[8] An early description of the Inca surfing in Callao was documented by Jesuit missionary José de ❤️ Acosta in his 1590 publication Historia natural y moral de las Indias, writing:[9]

It is true to see them go fishing ❤️ in Callao de Lima, was for me a thing of great recreation, because there were many and each one in ❤️ a balsilla caballero, or sitting stubbornly cutting the waves of the sea, which is rough where they fish, they looked ❤️ like the Tritons, or Neptunes, who paint upon the water.

Polynesia [ edit ]

Hawaiians surfing, 1858

In Polynesian culture, surfing was an ❤️ important activity.

Modern surfing as we know it today is thought to have originated in Hawaii.

The history of surfing dates to ❤️ c.

AD 400 in Polynesia, where Polynesians began to make their way to the Hawaiian Islands from Tahiti and the Marquesas ❤️ Islands.

They brought many of their customs with them including playing in the surf on Paipo (belly/body) boards.

It was in Hawaii ❤️ that the art of standing and surfing upright on boards was invented.[10]

Various European explorers witnessed surfing in Polynesia.

Surfing may have ❤️ been observed by British explorers at Tahiti in 1767.

Samuel Wallis and the crew members of HMS Dolphin were the first ❤️ Britons to visit the island in June of that year.

Another candidate is the botanist Joseph Banks[11] who was part of ❤️ the first voyage of James Cook on HMS Endeavour, arriving on Tahiti on 10 April 1769.

Lieutenant James King was the ❤️ first person to write about the art of surfing on Hawaii, when he was completing the journals of Captain James ❤️ Cook (upon Cook's death in 1779).

In Herman Melville's 1849 novel Mardi, based on his experiences in Polynesia earlier that decade, ❤️ the narrator describes the "Rare Sport at Ohonoo" (title of chap.

90): "For this sport, a surf-board is indispensable: some five ❤️ feet in length; the width of a man's body; convex on both sides; highly polished; and rounded at the ends.

It ❤️ is held in high estimation; invariably oiled after use; and hung up conspicuously in the dwelling of the owner.

"[12] When ❤️ Mark Twain visited Hawaii in 1866 he wrote, "In one place, we came upon a large company of naked natives ❤️ of both sexes and all ages, amusing themselves with the national pastime of surf-bathing."[13]

References to surf riding on planks and ❤️ single canoe hulls are also verified for pre-contact Samoa, where surfing was called fa'ase'e or se'egalu (see Augustin Krämer, The ❤️ Samoa Islands[14]), and Tonga, far pre-dating the practice of surfing by Hawaiians and eastern Polynesians by over a thousand years.

West ❤️ Africa [ edit ]West Africans (e.g.

, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Senegal) and western Central Africans (e.g.

, Cameroon) independently developed the ❤️ skill of surfing.

[15] Amid the 1640s CE, Michael Hemmersam provided an account of surfing in the Gold Coast: "the parents ❤️ 'tie their children to boards and throw them into the water.

'"[15] In 1679 CE, Barbot provided an account of surfing ❤️ among Elmina children in Ghana: "children at Elmina learned "to swim, on bits of boards, or small bundles of rushes, ❤️ fasten'd under their stomachs, which is a good diversion to the spectators.

"[15] James Alexander provided an account of surfing in ❤️ Accra, Ghana in 1834 CE: "From the beach, meanwhile, might be seen boys swimming into the sea, with light boards ❤️ under their stomachs.

They waited for a surf; and came rolling like a cloud on top of it.

But I was told ❤️ that sharks occasionally dart in behind the rocks and 'yam' them.

"[15] Thomas Hutchinson provided an account of surfing in southern ❤️ Cameroon in 1861: "Fishermen rode small dugouts 'no more than six feet in length, fourteen to sixteen inches in width, ❤️ and from four to six inches in depth.

'"[15]California [ edit ]

A woman holding her surfboard about to surf in Morro ❤️ Bay, California

In July 1885, three teenage Hawaiian princes took a break from their boarding school, St.

Mathew's Hall in San Mateo, ❤️ and came to cool off in Santa Cruz, California.

There, David Kawānanakoa, Edward Keliʻiahonui and Jonah Kūhiō Kalanianaʻole surfed the mouth ❤️ of the San Lorenzo River on custom-shaped redwood boards, according to surf historians Kim Stoner and Geoff Dunn.

[16] In 1890, ❤️ the pioneer in agricultural education John Wrightson reputedly became the first British surfer when instructed by two Hawaiian students at ❤️ his college.[17][18][19]

George Freeth (1883–1919) is often credited as being the "Father of Modern Surfing".

He is thought to have been the ❤️ first modern surfer.[20]

In 1907, the eclectic interests of the land baron Henry E.

Huntington brought surfing to the California coast.

While on ❤️ vacation, Huntington had seen Hawaiian boys surfing the island waves.

Looking for a way to entice visitors to the area of ❤️ Redondo Beach, where he had heavily invested in real estate, he hired a young Hawaiian to ride surfboards.

George Freeth decided ❤️ to revive the art of surfing, but had little success with the huge 500 cm (16 ft) hardwood boards that ❤️ were popular at that time.

When he cut them in half to make them more manageable, he created the original "Long ❤️ board", which made him the talk of the islands.

To the delight of visitors, Freeth exhibited his surfing skills twice a ❤️ day in front of the Hotel Redondo.

Another native Hawaiian, Duke Kahanamoku, spread surfing to both the U.S.

and Australia, riding the ❤️ waves after displaying the swimming prowess that won him Olympic gold medals in 1912 and 1920.[21]

In 1975, a professional tour ❤️ started.

[22] That year Margo Oberg became the first female professional surfer.

[22]Surf waves [ edit ]

Surfer getting tubed at Sunset on ❤️ the North Shore of Oahu

A large wave breaking at Mavericks

Swell is generated when the wind blows consistently over a large ❤️ space of open water, called the wind's fetch.

The size of a swell is determined by the strength of the wind, ❤️ and the length of its fetch and duration.

Because of these factors, the surf tends to be larger and more prevalent ❤️ on coastlines exposed to large expanses of ocean traversed by intense low pressure systems.

Local wind conditions affect wave quality since ❤️ the surface of a wave can become choppy in blustery conditions.

Ideal conditions include a light to moderate "offshore" wind, because ❤️ it blows into the front of the wave, making it a "barrel" or "tube" wave.

Waves are left-handed and right-handed depending ❤️ upon the breaking formation of the wave.

Waves are generally recognized by the surfaces over which they break.

[23] For example, there ❤️ are beach breaks, reef breaks and point breaks.

The most important influence on wave shape is the topography of the seabed ❤️ directly behind and immediately beneath the breaking wave.

Each break is different since each location's underwater topography is unique.

At beach breaks, ❤️ sandbanks change shape from week to week.

Surf forecasting is aided by advances in information technology.

Mathematical modeling graphically depicts the size ❤️ and direction of swells around the globe.

Swell regularity varies across the globe and throughout the year.

During winter, heavy swells are ❤️ generated in the mid-latitudes, when the North and South polar fronts shift toward the Equator.

The predominantly Westerly winds generate swells ❤️ that advance Eastward, so waves tend to be largest on West coasts during winter months.

However, an endless train of mid-latitude ❤️ cyclones cause the isobars to become undulated, redirecting swells at regular intervals toward the tropics.

East coasts also receive heavy winter ❤️ swells when low-pressure cells form in the sub-tropics, where slow moving highs inhibit their movement.

These lows produce a shorter fetch ❤️ than polar fronts, however, they can still generate heavy swells since their slower movement increases the duration of a particular ❤️ wind direction.

The variables of fetch and duration both influence how long wind acts over a wave as it travels since ❤️ a wave reaching the end of a fetch behaves as if the wind died.

During summer, heavy swells are generated when ❤️ cyclones form in the tropics.

Tropical cyclones form over warm seas, so their occurrence is influenced by El Niño & La ❤️ Niña cycles.

Their movements are unpredictable.

Surf travel and some surf camps offer surfers access to remote, tropical locations, where tradewinds ensure ❤️ offshore conditions.

Since winter swells are generated by mid-latitude cyclones, their regularity coincides with the passage of these lows.

Swells arrive in ❤️ pulses, each lasting for a couple of days, with a few days between each swell.

The availability of free model data ❤️ from the NOAA has allowed the creation of several surf forecasting websites.

Tube shape and speed [ edit ]

The geometry of ❤️ tube shape can be represented as a ratio between length and width.

Tube shape is defined by length to width ratio.

A ❤️ perfectly cylindrical vortex has a ratio of 1:1.

Other forms include:Square: <1:1Round: 1-2:1Almond: >2:1

Peel or peeling off as a descriptive term ❤️ for the quality of a break has been defined as "a fast, clean, evenly falling curl line, perfect for surfing, ❤️ and usually found at pointbreaks."[24]

Tube speed is the rate of advance of the break along the length of the wave, ❤️ and is the speed at which the surfer must move along the wave to keep up with the advance of ❤️ the tube.

[25] Tube speed can be described using the peel angle and wave celerity.

Peel angle is the angle between the ❤️ wave front and the horizontal projection of the point of break over time, which in a regular break is most ❤️ easily represented by the line of white water left after the break.

A break that closes out, or breaks all at ❤️ once along its length, leaves white water parallel to the wave front, and has a peel angle of 0°.

This is ❤️ unsurfable as it would require infinite speed to progress along the face fast enough to keep up with the break.

A ❤️ break which advances along the wave face more slowly will leave a line of new white water at an angle ❤️ to the line of the wave face.[25][26]

V s = c s i n α {\displaystyle V_{s}={\frac {c}{sin\alpha }}} [25]Where:

V s ❤️ = {\displaystyle V_{s}=} c = {\displaystyle c=} α = {\displaystyle \alpha =}

In most cases a peel angle less than 25° ❤️ is too fast to surf.

[25]Fast: 30°Medium: 45°Slow: 60°

Wave intensity [ edit ]

The type of break depends on shoaling rate.

Breaking waves ❤️ can be classified as four basic types: spilling (ξ b <0.4), plunging (0.

4<ξ b <2), collapsing (ξ b >2) and ❤️ surging (ξ b >2), and which type occurs depends on the slope of the bottom.[25]

Waves suitable for surfing break as ❤️ spilling or plunging types, and when they also have a suitable peel angle, their value for surfing is enhanced.

Other factors ❤️ such as wave height and period, and wind strength and direction can also influence steepness and intensity of the break, ❤️ but the major influence on the type and shape of breaking waves is determined by the slope of the seabed ❤️ before the break.

The breaker type index and Iribarren number allow classification of breaker type as a function of wave steepness ❤️ and seabed slope.[25]

Artificial reefs [ edit ]

The value of good surf in attracting surf tourism has prompted the construction of ❤️ artificial reefs and sand bars.

Artificial surfing reefs can be built with durable sandbags or concrete, and resemble a submerged breakwater.

These ❤️ artificial reefs not only provide a surfing location, but also dissipate wave energy and shelter the coastline from erosion.

Ships such ❤️ as Seli 1 that have accidentally stranded on sandy bottoms, can create sandbanks that give rise to good waves.[27]

An artificial ❤️ reef known as Chevron Reef was constructed in El Segundo, California in hopes of creating a new surfing area.

However, the ❤️ reef failed to produce any quality waves and was removed in 2008.

In Kovalam, South West India, an artificial reef has ❤️ successfully provided the local community with a quality lefthander, stabilized coastal soil erosion, and provided good habitat for marine life.[28] ❤️ ASR Ltd.

, a New Zealand-based company, constructed the Kovalam reef and is working on another reef in Boscombe, England.

Artificial waves ❤️ [ edit ]

Surfing a stationary, artificial wave in Southern California

Even with artificial reefs in place, a tourist's vacation time may ❤️ coincide with a "flat spell", when no waves are available.

Completely artificial wave pools aim to solve that problem by controlling ❤️ all the elements that go into creating perfect surf, however there are only a handful of wave pools that can ❤️ simulate good surfing waves, owing primarily to construction and operation costs and potential liability.

Most wave pools generate waves that are ❤️ too small and lack the power necessary to surf.

The Seagaia Ocean Dome, located in Miyazaki, Japan, was an example of ❤️ a surfable wave pool.

Able to generate waves with up to 3 m (10 ft) faces, the specialized pump held water ❤️ in 20 vertical tanks positioned along the back edge of the pool.

This allowed the waves to be directed as they ❤️ approach the artificial sea floor.

Lefts, Rights, and A-frames could be directed from this pump design providing for rippable surf and ❤️ barrel rides.

The Ocean Dome cost about $2 billion to build and was expensive to maintain.

[29] The Ocean Dome was closed ❤️ in 2007.

In England, construction is nearing completion on the Wave,[30] situated near Bristol, which will enable people unable to get ❤️ to the coast to enjoy the waves in a controlled environment, set in the heart of nature.

There are two main ❤️ types of artificial waves that exist today.

One being artificial or stationary waves which simulate a moving, breaking wave by pumping ❤️ a layer of water against a smooth structure mimicking the shape of a breaking wave.

Because of the velocity of the ❤️ rushing water, the wave and the surfer can remain stationary while the water rushes by under the surfboard.

Artificial waves of ❤️ this kind provide the opportunity to try surfing and learn its basics in a moderately small and controlled environment near ❤️ or far from locations with natural surf.

Maneuvers [ edit ]

A surfer going for the tube

Catching waves at a surfing contest ❤️ on the North Shore of Oahu, Hawaii

Standup surfing begins when the surfer paddles toward shore in an attempt to match ❤️ the speed of the wave (the same applies whether the surfer is standup paddling, bodysurfing, boogie-boarding or using some other ❤️ type of watercraft, such as a waveski or kayak).

Once the wave begins to carry the surfer forward, the surfer stands ❤️ up and proceeds to ride the wave.

The basic idea is to position the surfboard so it is just ahead of ❤️ the breaking part (whitewash) of the wave, in the so-called 'pocket'.

It is difficult for beginners to catch the wave at ❤️ all.

Surfers' skills are tested by their ability to control their board in difficult conditions, riding challenging waves, and executing maneuvers ❤️ such as strong turns and cutbacks (turning board back to the breaking wave) and carving (a series of strong back-to-back ❤️ maneuvers).

More advanced skills include the floater (riding on top of the breaking curl of the wave), and off the lip ❤️ (banking off crest of the breaking wave).

A newer addition to surfing is the progression of the air, whereby a surfer ❤️ propels off the wave entirely up into the air and then successfully lands the board back on the wave.

The tube ❤️ ride is considered to be the ultimate maneuver in surfing.

As a wave breaks, if the conditions are ideal, the wave ❤️ will break in an orderly line from the middle to the shoulder, enabling the experienced surfer to position themselves inside ❤️ the wave as it is breaking.

This is known as a tube ride.

Viewed from the shore, the tube rider may disappear ❤️ from view as the wave breaks over the rider's head.

The longer the surfer remains in the tube, the more successful ❤️ the ride.

This is referred to as getting tubed, barrelled, shacked or pitted.

Some of the world's best-known waves for tube riding ❤️ include Pipeline on the North Shore of Oahu, Teahupoo in Tahiti and G-Land in Java.

Other names for the tube include ❤️ "the barrel", and "the pit".

Hanging ten and hanging five are moves usually specific to longboarding.

Hanging Ten refers to having both ❤️ feet on the front end of the board with all of the surfer's toes off the edge, also known as ❤️ nose-riding.

Hanging Five is having just one foot near the front, with five toes off the edge.

Cutback: Generating speed down the ❤️ line and then turning back to reverse direction.

Snap: Quickly turning along the face or top of the wave, almost as ❤️ if snapping the board back towards the wave.

Typically done on steeper waves.

Blowtail: Pushing the tail of the board out of ❤️ the back of the wave so that the fins leave the water.

Floater: Suspending the board atop the wave.

Very popular on ❤️ small waves.

Top-Turn: Turn off the top of the wave.

Sometimes used to generate speed and sometimes to shoot spray.

Bottom Turn: A ❤️ turn at the bottom or mid-face of the wave, this maneuver is used to set up other maneuvers such as ❤️ the top turn, cutback and even aerials.

Airs/Aerials: These maneuvers have been becoming more and more prevalent in the sport in ❤️ both competition and free surfing.

An air is when the surfer can achieve enough speed and approach a certain type of ❤️ section of a wave that is supposed to act as a ramp and launch the surfer above the lip line ❤️ of the wave, "catching air", and landing either in the transition of the wave or the whitewash when hitting a ❤️ close-out section.

Airs can either be straight airs or rotational airs.

Straight airs have minimal rotation if any, but definitely no more ❤️ rotation than 90 degrees.

Rotational airs require a rotation of 90 degrees or more depending on the level of the surfer.

Types ❤️ of rotations:

180 degrees – called an air reverse, this is when the surfer spins enough to land backwards, then reverts ❤️ to their original positional with the help of the fins.

This rotation can either be done frontside or backside and can ❤️ spin right or left.

360 degrees – this is a full rotation air or "full rotor" where the surfer lands where ❤️ they started or more, as long as they do not land backwards.

When this is achieved front side on a wave ❤️ spinning the opposite of an air reverse is called an alley-oop.

540 degrees – the surfer does a full rotation plus ❤️ another 180 degrees and can be inverted or spinning straight, few surfers have been able to land this air.

Backflip – ❤️ usually done with a double grab, this hard to land air is made for elite-level surfers.

Rodeo flip – usually done ❤️ backside, it is a backflip with a 180 rotation, and is actually easier than a straight backflip.

Grabs – a surfer ❤️ can help land an aerial maneuver by grabbing the surfboard, keeping them attached to the board and keeping the board ❤️ under their feet.

Common types of grabs include: Indy – a grab on the surfers inside rail going frontside, outside rail ❤️ going backside with their backhand.

Slob – a grab on the surfers inside rail going frontside, outside rail going backside with ❤️ their front hand.

Lien – A grab on the surfers outside rail frontside, inside rail going backside with their front hand.

Stalefish ❤️ – A grab on the surfers outside rail frontside, inside rail backside with their backhand.

Double grab – A grab on ❤️ the surfers inside and outside rail, the inside rail with the backhand and the outside rail with the front hand.

Terms ❤️ [ edit ]

The Glossary of surfing includes some of the extensive vocabulary used to describe various aspects of the sport ❤️ of surfing as described in literature on the subject.

[31][32] In some cases terms have spread to a wider cultural use.

These ❤️ terms were originally coined by people who were directly involved in the sport of surfing.

Learning [ edit ]Learning to surf

Many ❤️ popular surfing destinations have surf schools and surf camps that offer lessons.

Surf camps for beginners and intermediates are multi-day lessons ❤️ that focus on surfing fundamentals.

They are designed to take new surfers and help them become proficient riders.

All-inclusive surf camps offer ❤️ overnight accommodations, meals, lessons and surfboards.

Most surf lessons begin with instruction and a safety briefing on land, followed by instructors ❤️ helping students into waves on longboards or "softboards".

The softboard is considered the ideal surfboard for learning, due to the fact ❤️ it is safer, and has more paddling speed and stability than shorter boards.

Funboards are also a popular shape for beginners ❤️ as they combine the volume and stability of the longboard with the manageable size of a smaller surfboard.

[33] New and ❤️ inexperienced surfers typically learn to catch waves on softboards around the 210 to 240 cm (7 to 8 ft) funboard ❤️ size.

Due to the softness of the surfboard the chance of getting injured is substantially minimized.

Typical surfing instruction is best-performed one-on-one, ❤️ but can also be done in a group setting.

The most popular surf locations offer perfect surfing conditions for beginners, as ❤️ well as challenging breaks for advanced students.

The ideal conditions for learning would be small waves that crumble and break softly, ❤️ as opposed to the steep, fast-peeling waves desired by more experienced surfers.

When available, a sandy seabed is generally safer.

Surfing can ❤️ be broken into several skills: paddling strength, positioning to catch the wave, timing, and balance.

Paddling out requires strength, but also ❤️ the mastery of techniques to break through oncoming waves (duck diving, eskimo roll also known as turtle).

Take-off positioning requires experience ❤️ at predicting the wave set and where it will break.

The surfer must pop up quickly as soon as the wave ❤️ starts pushing the board forward.

Preferred positioning on the wave is determined by experience at reading wave features including where the ❤️ wave is breaking.

[34] Balance plays a crucial role in standing on a surfboard.

Thus, balance training exercises are good preparation.

Practicing with ❤️ a balance board, longboard (skateboard) or swing board helps novices master the art of surfing.[35]

The repetitive cycle of paddling, popping ❤️ up, and balancing requires stamina and physical strength.

Having a proper warm-up routine can help prevent injuries.

[36]Equipment [ edit ]Waxing a ❤️ surfboard

Surfing can be done on various equipment, including surfboards, longboards, stand up paddle boards (SUPs), bodyboards, wave skis, skimboards, kneeboards, ❤️ surf mats and macca's trays.

Surfboards were originally made of solid wood and were large and heavy (often up to 370 ❤️ cm (12 ft) long and having a mass of 70 kg (150 lb)).

Lighter balsa wood surfboards (first made in the ❤️ late 1940s and early 1950s) were a significant improvement, not only in portability, but also in increasing maneuverability.

Most modern surfboards ❤️ are made of fiberglass foam (PU), with one or more wooden strips or "stringers", fiberglass cloth, and polyester resin (PE).

An ❤️ emerging board material is epoxy resin and Expanded Polystyrene foam (EPS) which is stronger and lighter than traditional PU/PE construction.

Even ❤️ newer designs incorporate materials such as carbon fiber and variable-flex composites in conjunction with fiberglass and epoxy or polyester resins.

Since ❤️ epoxy/EPS surfboards are generally lighter, they will float better than a traditional PU/PE board of similar size, shape and thickness.

This ❤️ makes them easier to paddle and faster in the water.

However, a common complaint of EPS boards is that they do ❤️ not provide as much feedback as a traditional PU/PE board.

For this reason, many advanced surfers prefer that their surfboards be ❤️ made from traditional materials.

Other equipment includes a leash (to stop the board from drifting away after a wipeout and to ❤️ prevent it from hitting other surfers), surf wax, traction pads (to keep a surfer's feet from slipping off the deck ❤️ of the board), and fins (also known as skegs) which can either be permanently attached (glassed-on) or interchangeable.

Sportswear designed or ❤️ particularly suitable for surfing may be sold as boardwear (the term is also used in snowboarding).

In warmer climates, swimsuits, surf ❤️ trunks or boardshorts are worn, and occasionally rash guards; in cold water, surfers can opt to wear wetsuits, boots, hoods, ❤️ and gloves to protect them against lower water temperatures.

[37] A newer introduction is a rash vest with a thin layer ❤️ of titanium to provide maximum warmth without compromising mobility.

[clarification needed] In recent years, there have been advancements in technology that ❤️ have allowed surfers to pursue even bigger waves with added elements of safety.

Big wave surfers are now experimenting with inflatable ❤️ vests or colored dye packs to help decrease their odds of drowning.[38]

A variety of surfboards

There are many different surfboard sizes, ❤️ shapes, and designs in use today.

Modern longboards, generally 270 to 300 cm (9 to 10 ft) in length, are reminiscent ❤️ of the earliest surfboards, but now benefit from modern innovations in surfboard shaping and fin design.

Competitive longboard surfers need to ❤️ be competent at traditional walking manoeuvres, as well as the short-radius turns normally associated with shortboard surfing.

The modern shortboard began ❤️ life in the late 1960s and has evolved into today's common thruster style, defined by its three fins, usually around ❤️ 180 to 210 cm (6 to 7 ft) in length.

The thruster was invented by Australian shaper Simon Anderson.

Midsize boards, often ❤️ called funboards, provide more maneuverability than a longboard, with more flotation than a shortboard.

While many surfers find that funboards live ❤️ up to their name, providing the best of both surfing modes, others are critical.

"It is the happy medium of mediocrity," ❤️ writes Steven Kotler.

"Funboard riders either have nothing left to prove or lack the skills to prove anything."[39]

There are also various ❤️ niche styles, such as the Egg, a longboard-style short board targeted at people who want to ride a shortboard but ❤️ need more paddle power.

The Fish, a board that is typically shorter, flatter, and wider than a normal shortboard, often with ❤️ a split tail (known as a swallow tail).

The Fish often has two or four fins and is specifically designed for ❤️ surfing smaller waves.

For big waves, there is the Gun, a long, thick board with a pointed nose and tail (known ❤️ as a pintail) specifically designed for big waves.

The physics of surfing [ edit ]

The physics of surfing involves the physical ❤️ oceanographic properties of wave creation in the surf zone, the characteristics of the surfboard, and the surfer's interaction with the ❤️ water and the board.

Wave formation [ edit ]

Ocean waves are defined as a collection of dislocated water parcels that undergo ❤️ a cycle of being forced past their normal position and being restored back to their normal position.

[40] Wind causes ripples ❤️ and eddies to form waves that gradually gain speed and distance (fetch).

Waves increase in energy and speed and then become ❤️ longer and stronger.

[41] The fully-developed sea has the strongest wave action that experiences storms lasting 10-hours and creates 15 m ❤️ (49.

2 ft) wave heights in the open ocean.[40]

The waves created in the open ocean are classified as deep-water waves.

Deep-water waves ❤️ have no bottom interaction and the orbits of these water molecules are circular; their wavelength is short relative to water ❤️ depth and the velocity decays before reaching the bottom of the water basin.

[40] Deep water waves are waves in water ❤️ depths greater than half their wavelengths.

[citation needed] Wind forces waves to break in the deep sea.

[clarification needed]

Deep-water waves travel to ❤️ shore and become shallow-water waves when the water depth is less than half of their wavelength, and the wave motion ❤️ becomes constrained by the bottom, causing the orbit paths to be flattened to ellipses.

The bottom exerts a frictional drag on ❤️ the bottom of the wave, which decreases the celerity (or the speed of the waveform), and causes refraction.

Slowing the wave ❤️ forces it to shorten which increases the height and steepness, and the top (crest) falls because the velocity of the ❤️ top of the wave becomes greater than the velocity of the bottom of the wave where the drag occurs.[40]

The surf ❤️ zone is the place of convergence of multiple waves types creating complex wave patterns.

A wave suitable for surfing results from ❤️ maximum speeds of 5 metres per second (16 ft/s).

This speed is relative because local onshore winds can cause waves to ❤️ break.

[41] In the surf zone, shallow water waves are carried by global winds to the beach and interact with local ❤️ winds to make surfing waves.[41][42]

Different onshore and off-shore wind patterns in the surf zone create different types of waves.

Onshore winds ❤️ cause random wave breaking patterns and are more suitable for experienced surfers.

[41][42] Light offshore winds create smoother waves, while strong ❤️ direct offshore winds cause plunging or large barrel waves.

[41] Barrel waves are large because the water depth is small when ❤️ the wave breaks.

Thus, the breaker intensity (or force) increases, and the wave speed and height increase.

[41] Off-shore winds produce non-surfable ❤️ conditions by flattening a weak swell.

Weak swell is made from surface gravity forces and has long wavelengths.[41][43]

Wave conditions for surfing ❤️ [ edit ]

Surfing waves can be analyzed using the following parameters: breaking wave height, wave peel angle (α), wave breaking ❤️ intensity, and wave section length.

The breaking wave height has two measurements, the relative heights estimated by surfers and the exact ❤️ measurements done by physical oceanographers.

Measurements done by surfers were 1.36 to 2.

58 times higher than the measurements done by scientists.

The ❤️ scientifically concluded wave heights that are physically possible to surf are 1 to 20 m (3.3 to 66 ft).[41]

The wave ❤️ peel angle is one of the main constituents of a potential surfing wave.

Wave peel angle measures the distance between the ❤️ peel-line and the line tangent to the breaking crest line.

This angle controls the speed of the wave crest.

The speed of ❤️ the wave is an addition of the propagation velocity vector (Vw) and peel velocity vector (Vp), which results in the ❤️ overall velocity of the wave (Vs).[41]

Wave breaking intensity measures the force of the wave as it breaks, spills, or plunges ❤️ (a plunging wave is termed by surfers as a "barrel wave").

Wave section length is the distance between two breaking crests ❤️ in a wave set.

Wave section length can be hard to measure because local winds, non-linear wave interactions, island sheltering, and ❤️ swell interactions can cause multifarious wave configurations in the surf zone.[41]

The parameters breaking wave height, wave peel angle (α), and ❤️ wave breaking intensity, and wave section length are important because they are standardized by past oceanographers who researched surfing; these ❤️ parameters have been used to create a guide that matches the type of wave formed and the skill level of ❤️ surfer.[41]

Table 1 shows a relationship of smaller peel angles correlating with a higher skill level of the surfer.

Smaller wave peel ❤️ angles increase the velocities of waves.

A surfer must know how to react and paddle quickly to match the speed of ❤️ the wave to catch it.

Therefore, more experience is required to catch low peel angle waves.

More experienced surfers can handle longer ❤️ section lengths, increased velocities, and higher wave heights.

[41] Different locations offer different types of surfing conditions for each skill level.

Surf ❤️ breaks [ edit ]

A surf break is an area with an obstruction or an object that causes a wave to ❤️ break.

Surf breaks entail multiple scale phenomena.

Wave section creation has microscale factors of peel angle and wave breaking intensity.

The micro-scale components ❤️ influence wave height and variations on wave crests.

The mesoscale components of surf breaks are the ramp, platform, wedge, or ledge ❤️ that may be present at a surf break.

Macro-scale processes are the global winds that initially produce offshore waves.

Types of surf ❤️ breaks are headlands (point break), beach break, river/estuary entrance bar, reef breaks, and ledge breaks.[41]

Headland (point break) [ edit ]

A ❤️ headland or point break interacts with the water by causing refraction around the point or headland.

The point absorbs the high-frequency ❤️ waves and long-period waves persist, which are easier to surf.

Examples of locations that have headland or point break-induced surf breaks ❤️ are Dunedin (New Zealand), Raglan (New Zealand), Malibu (California), Rincon (California), and Kirra (Australia).[41]

Beach break [ edit ]

A beach break ❤️ is an area of open coastline where the waves break over a sand-bottom.

They are the most common, yet also the ❤️ most volatile of surf breaks.

Wave breaks happen successively at beach breaks, as in there are multiple peaks to surf at ❤️ a single beach break location.

Example locations are Tairua and Aramoana Beach (New Zealand) and the Gold Coast (Australia).[41]

A group of ❤️ surfers surfing a beach break in Juno Beach, Florida.

River or estuary entrance bar [ edit ]

A river or estuary entrance ❤️ bar creates waves from the ebb-tidal delta, sediment outflow, and tidal currents.

An ideal estuary entrance bar exists in Whangamata Bar, ❤️ New Zealand.

[41]Reef break [ edit ]

A reef break is conducive to surfing because large waves consistently break over the reef.

The ❤️ reef is usually made of coral, and because of this, many injuries occur while surfing reef breaks.

However, the waves that ❤️ are produced by reef breaks are some of the best in the world.

Famous reef breaks are present in Padang Padang ❤️ (Indonesia), Pipeline (Hawaii), Uluwatu (Bali), and Teahupo'o (Tahiti).[41][44]

Ledge break [ edit ]

A ledge break is formed by steep rocks ledges ❤️ that make intense waves because the waves travel through deeper water then abruptly reach shallower water at the ledge.

Shark Island, ❤️ Australia is a location with a ledge break.

Ledge breaks create difficult surfing conditions, sometimes only allowing body surfing as the ❤️ only feasible way to confront the waves.[41]

Jetties and their impacts on wave formation in the surf zone [ edit ]

Jetties ❤️ are added to bodies of water to regulate erosion, preserve navigation channels, and make harbors.

Jetties are classified into four different ❤️ types and have two main controlling variables: the type of delta[clarification needed] and the size of the jetty.[45]

Type 1 jetty ❤️ [ edit ]

The first classification is a type 1 jetty.

This type of jetty is significantly longer than the surf zone ❤️ width and the waves break at the shore end of the jetty.

The effect of a Type 1 jetty is sediment ❤️ accumulation in a wedge formation on the jetty.

These waves are large and increase in size as they pass over the ❤️ sediment wedge formation.

An example of a Type 1 jetty is Mission Beach, San Diego, California.

This 1000-meter jetty was installed in ❤️ 1950 at the mouth of Mission Bay.

The surf waves happen north of the jetty, are longer waves, and are powerful.

The ❤️ bathymetry of the sea bottom in Mission Bay has a wedge shape formation that causes the waves to refract as ❤️ they become closer to the jetty.

[45] The waves converge constructively after they refract and increase the sizes of the waves.

Type ❤️ 2 jetty [ edit ]

A type 2 jetty occurs in an ebb-tidal delta, a delta transitioning between high and low ❤️ tide.

This area has shallow water, refraction, and distinctive seabed shapes that create large wave heights.[45]

An example of a type 2 ❤️ jetty is called "The Poles" in Atlantic Beach, Florida.

Atlantic Beach is known to have flat waves, with exceptions during major ❤️ storms.

However, "The Poles" has larger than normal waves due to a 500-meter jetty that was installed on the south side ❤️ of St.Johns.

This jetty was built to make a deep channel in the river.

It formed a delta at "The Poles".

This is ❤️ a special area because the jetty increases wave size for surfing when comparing pre-conditions and post-conditions of the southern St.

Johns ❤️ River mouth area.[45]

The wave size at "The Poles" depends on the direction of the incoming water.

When easterly waters (from 55°) ❤️ interact with the jetty, they create waves larger than southern waters (from 100°).

When southern waves (from 100°) move toward "The ❤️ Poles", one of the waves breaks north of the southern jetty and the other breaks south of the jetty.

This does ❤️ not allow for merging to make larger waves.

Easterly waves, from 55°, converge north of the jetty and unite to make ❤️ bigger waves.[45]

Type 3 jetty [ edit ]

A type 3 jetty is in an ebb-tidal area with an unchanging seabed that ❤️ has naturally created waves.

Examples of a Type 3 jetty occurs in "Southside" Tamarack, Carlsbad, California.[45]

Type 4 jetty [ edit ]

A ❤️ type 4 jetty is one that no longer functions nor traps sediment.

The waves are created from reefs in the surf ❤️ zone.

A type 4 jetty can be found in Tamarack, Carlsbad, California.[45]

Rip currents [ edit ]

Rip currents are fast, narrow currents ❤️ that are caused by onshore transport within the surf zone and the successive return of the water seaward.

[46][47] The wedge ❤️ bathymetry makes a convenient and consistent rip current of 5–10 meters that brings the surfers to the "take-off point" then ❤️ out to the beach.[45]

Oceanographers have two theories on rip current formation.

The wave interaction model assumes that two edges of waves ❤️ interact, create differing wave heights, and cause longshore transport of nearshore currents.

The Boundary Interaction Model assumes that the topography of ❤️ the sea bottom causes nearshore circulation and longshore transport; the result of both models is a rip current.[46]

Rip currents can ❤️ be extremely strong and narrow as they extend out of the surf zone into deeper water, reaching speeds from 0.5 ❤️ m/s (1.

6 ft/s) and up to 2.5 m/s (8.

2 ft/s),[47][48] which is faster than any human can swim.

The water in ❤️ the jet is sediment rich, bubble rich, and moves rapidly.

[47] The rip head of the rip current has long shore ❤️ movement.

Rip currents are common on beaches with mild slopes that experience sizeable and frequent oceanic swell.[48]

On the surfboard [ edit ❤️ ]

A longer surfboard of 300 cm (10 ft) causes more friction with the water; therefore, it will be slower than ❤️ a smaller and lighter board with a length of 180 cm (6 ft).

Longer boards are good for beginners who need ❤️ help balancing.

Smaller boards are good for more experienced surfers who want to have more control and maneuverability.[43]

When practicing the sport ❤️ of surfing, the surfer paddles out past the wave break to wait for a wave.

When a surfable wave arrives, the ❤️ surfer must paddle extremely fast to match the velocity of the wave so the wave can accelerate him or her.[43]

When ❤️ the surfer is at wave speed, the surfer must quickly pop up, stay low, and stay toward the front of ❤️ the wave to become stable and prevent falling as the wave steepens.

The acceleration is less toward the front than toward ❤️ the back.

The physics behind the surfing of the wave involves the horizontal acceleration force (F.

sinθ) and the vertical force (F.

cosθ=mg).

Therefore, ❤️ the surfer should lean forward to gain speed, and lean on the back foot to brake.

Also, to increase the length ❤️ of the ride of the wave, the surfer should travel parallel to the wave crest.

[43]Dangers [ edit ]Drowning [ edit ❤️ ]

Surfing, like all water sports, carries the inherent risk of drowning.

[49] Although the board assists a surfer in staying buoyant, ❤️ it can become separated from the user.

[50] A leash, attached to the ankle or knee, can keep a board from ❤️ being swept away, but does not keep a rider on the board or above water.

In some cases, possibly including the ❤️ drowning of professional surfer Mark Foo, a leash can even be a cause of drowning by snagging on a reef ❤️ or other object and holding the surfer underwater.

[51] By keeping the surfboard close to the surfer during a wipeout, a ❤️ leash also increases the chances that the board may strike the rider, which could knock them unconscious and lead to ❤️ drowning.

A fallen rider's board can become trapped in larger waves, and if the rider is attached by a leash, they ❤️ can be dragged for long distances underwater.

[51] Surfers should be careful to remain in smaller surf until they have acquired ❤️ the advanced skills and experience necessary to handle bigger waves and more challenging conditions.

However, even world-class surfers have drowned in ❤️ extremely challenging conditions.

[52]Collisions [ edit ]

A surfer exiting a closeout

Under the wrong set of conditions, anything that a surfer's body ❤️ can come in contact with is a potential hazard, including sand bars, rocks, small ice, reefs, surfboards, and other surfers.

[53] ❤️ Collisions with these objects can sometimes cause injuries such as cuts and scrapes and in rare instances, death.

A large number ❤️ of injuries, up to 66%,[54] are caused by collision with a surfboard (nose or fins).

Fins can cause deep lacerations and ❤️ cuts,[55] as well as bruising.

While these injuries can be minor, they can open the skin to infection from the sea; ❤️ groups like Surfers Against Sewage campaign for cleaner waters to reduce the risk of infections.

Local bugs and diseases can be ❤️ risk factors when surfing around the globe.[56]

Falling off a surfboard or colliding with others is commonly referred to as a ❤️ wipeout.

Marine life [ edit ]

Sea life can sometimes cause injuries (Bethany Hamilton) and even fatalities.

Animals such as sharks,[57] stingrays, Weever ❤️ fish, seals and jellyfish can sometimes present a danger.

[58] Warmer-water surfers often do the "stingray shuffle" as they walk out ❤️ through the shallows, shuffling their feet in the sand to scare away stingrays that may be resting on the bottom.[59]

Rip ❤️ currents [ edit ]

Rip current warning sign

Rip currents are water channels that flow away from the shore.

Under the wrong circumstances ❤️ these currents can endanger both experienced and inexperienced surfers.

Since a rip current appears to be an area of flat water, ❤️ tired or inexperienced swimmers or surfers may enter one and be carried out beyond the breaking waves.

Although many rip currents ❤️ are much smaller, the largest rip currents have a width of 12–15 m (40–50 ft).

The flow of water moving out ❤️ towards the sea in a rip will be stronger than most swimmers, making swimming back to shore difficult, however, by ❤️ paddling parallel to the shore, a surfer can easily exit a rip current.

Alternatively, some surfers actually ride on a rip ❤️ current because it is a fast and effortless way to get out beyond the zone of breaking waves.[60]Seabed [ edit ❤️ ]

The seabed can pose a risk for surfers.

If a surfer falls while riding a wave, the wave tosses and tumbles ❤️ the surfer around, often in a downwards direction.

At reef breaks and beach breaks, surfers have been seriously injured and even ❤️ killed, because of a violent collision with the sea bed, the water above which can sometimes be very shallow, especially ❤️ at beach breaks or reef breaks during low tide.

Cyclops, Western Australia, for example, is one of the biggest and thickest ❤️ reef breaks in the world, with waves measuring up to 10 m (33 ft) high, but the reef below is ❤️ only about 2 m (7 ft) below the surface of the water.

Microorganisms [ edit ]

A January 2018 study by the ❤️ University of Exeter called the "Beach Bum Survey" found surfers and bodyboarders to be three times as likely as non-surfers ❤️ to harbor antibiotic-resistant E.

coli and four times as likely to harbor other bacteria capable of easily becoming antibiotic resistant.

The researchers ❤️ attributed this to the fact that surfers swallow roughly ten times as much seawater as swimmers.

[61][62]Ear damage [ edit ]

Man ❤️ wearing protective ear plugs

Surfers sometimes use ear protection such as ear plugs to avoid surfer's ear, inflammation of the ear ❤️ or other damage.

Surfer's ear is where the bone near the ear canal grows after repeated exposure to cold water, making ❤️ the ear canal narrower.

The narrowed canal makes it harder for water to drain from the ear.

This can result in pain, ❤️ infection and sometimes ringing of the ear.

Ear plugs designed for surfers, swimmers and other water athletes are primarily made to ❤️ keep water out of the ear, thereby letting a protective pocket of air stay inside the ear canal.

They can also ❤️ block cold air, dirt and bacteria.

Many designs are made to let sound through, and either float and/or have a leash ❤️ in case the plug accidentally gets bumped out.

Surf Rash [ edit ]

Surf rash appears in many different ways on the ❤️ skin, commonly as a painful red bumpy patch located on the surfer's chest or inner legs.

A rash guard will lessen ❤️ the incidence of surf rash caused by abrasion or sunburn.

Healing ointments such as petroleum jelly can be used to treat ❤️ irritated skin.[63]

Spinal cord [ edit ]

Surfer's myelopathy is a rare spinal cord injury causing paralysis of the lower extremities, caused ❤️ by hyperextension of the back.

This is due to one of the main blood vessels of the spine becoming kinked, depriving ❤️ the spinal cord of oxygen.

In some cases the paralysis is permanent.

Although any activity where the back is arched can cause ❤️ this condition (i.e.yoga, pilates, etc.

), this rare phenomenon has most often been seen in those surfing for the first time.

According ❤️ to DPT Sergio Florian, some recommendations for preventing myelopathy is proper warm up, limiting the session length and sitting on ❤️ the board while waiting for waves, rather than lying.[64]

Surfers and surf culture [ edit ]

Surfers represent a diverse culture based ❤️ on riding the waves.

Some people practice surfing as a recreational activity, while others make it the central focus of their ❤️ lives.

Surfing culture in the US is most dominant in Hawaii and California, because these two states offer the best surfing ❤️ conditions.

However, waves can be found wherever there is coastline, and a tight-knit yet far-reaching subculture of surfers has emerged throughout ❤️ America.

Some historical markers of the culture included the woodie, the station wagon used to carry surfers' boards, as well as ❤️ boardshorts, the long swim shorts typically worn while surfing.

Surfers also wear wetsuits in colder regions and when the seasons cool ❤️ the air and water.

During the 1960s, as surfing caught on in California, its popularity spread through American pop culture.

Several teen ❤️ movies, starting with the Gidget series in 1959, transformed surfing into a dream life for American youth.

Later movies, including Beach ❤️ Party (1963), Ride the Wild Surf (1964), and Beach Blanket Bingo (1965) promoted the California dream of sun and surf.

Surf ❤️ culture also fueled the early records of the Beach Boys.

The sport is also a significant part of Australia's eastern coast ❤️ sub-cultural life,[65] especially in New South Wales, where the weather and water conditions are most favourable for surfing.

The sport of ❤️ surfing now represents a multibillion-dollar industry, especially in clothing and fashion markets.

Founded in 1964, the International Surfing Association (ISA) is ❤️ the oldest foundation associated with surfing formed to better improve surfing and recognized by the International Olympic Committee as the ❤️ leading authority on surfing.

National and international surf competitions began in 1964.

In addition, The World Surf League (WSL) was established in ❤️ 1976 and promotes various championship tours, hosting top competitors in some of the best surf spots around the globe.

A small ❤️ number of people make a career out of surfing by receiving corporate sponsorships and performing for photographers and videographers in ❤️ far-flung destinations; they are typically referred to as freesurfers.

Sixty-six surfers on a 13 m (42 ft) long surfboard set a ❤️ record in Huntington Beach, California for most people on a surfboard at one time.

[citation needed] Dale Webster consecutively surfed for ❤️ 14,641 days, making it his main life focus.[citation needed]

When the waves were flat, surfers persevered with sidewalk surfing, which is ❤️ now called skateboarding.

Sidewalk surfing has a similar feel to surfing and requires only a paved road or sidewalk.

To create the ❤️ feel of the wave, surfers even sneaked into empty backyard swimming pools to ride in, known as pool skating.

Eventually, surfing ❤️ made its way to the slopes with the invention of the Snurfer, later credited as the first snowboard.

Many other board ❤️ sports have been invented over the years, but all can trace their heritage back to surfing.[citation needed]

Many surfers claim to ❤️ have a spiritual connection with the ocean, describing surfing, the surfing experience, both in and out of the water, as ❤️ a type of spiritual experience or a religion.

[66]See also [ edit ]References [ edit ]

vocational rehabilitation success stories.